As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases. Some links on this site are affiliate links at no extra cost to you. Our recommendations are based on thorough research and editorial judgment.

10 Best FPV Current Sensors: Top Picks for Accurate Flight Monitoring
For precise flight monitoring, you should consider top FPV current sensors such as the WCS1800 and the FCS2151-SD-420E, known for their broad measurement ranges and high accuracy. The Matek 150A Hall Effect Sensor offers robust performance, while the NOYITO ACS758LCB guarantees electrical isolation. The FrSky FAS100 and ACS712 series provide versatile integration options. Evaluating factors like current range, voltage compatibility, and overload protection features is crucial for optimizing performance and reliability; further insights are detailed in our thorough analysis.
Key Takeaways
- The Current Transformer Sensor is ideal for FPV applications, providing accurate measurements up to 5A despite environmental sensitivity.
- WCS1800 Hall Current Sensor offers a versatile range of 0.5A to 35A, but may require calibration for optimal accuracy.
- The ACS712 30A Range Current Sensor Module is economical and provides a linear analog output, suitable for basic flight monitoring needs.
- For high-performance setups, the Matek 150A Hall Effect Current Sensor effectively manages continuous currents up to 150A with minimal heat generation.
- Ensure integration compatibility with sensors like the FrSky FAS100 that measures up to 100A, focusing on receiver requirements for optimal performance.
WCS1800 Hall Current Sensor Module
JESSINIE WCS1800 Hall Current Sensor Detector 35A Current Sensor Module Board Short Circuit...
- Working voltage: DC DC5V, Linearity: K = 60mV/A
- Current detection range: DC: 35A ;AC:25A (suitable for analog output), Limitable current range: 0.5A-35A (suitable for switching value output)
- With overcurrent signal indicator light, With mounting holes, it is convenient for firmware installation
The WCS1800 Hall Current Sensor Module stands out as an exceptional choice for enthusiasts and professionals engaged in FPV (First-Person View) flight monitoring, primarily due to its current detection capabilities, which encompass a wide range of 0.5A to 35A for switching value output, while efficiently handling up to 25A for AC applications. This device operates effectively at a voltage of DC 5V and provides an analog voltage signal or TTL level signal for microcontroller IO port control. User reviews averaging 4.4 stars highlight its effectiveness, particularly with applications such as sump pump monitoring, although challenges with digital output calibration persist.
Best For: The WCS1800 Hall Current Sensor Module is best for enthusiasts and professionals requiring precise current monitoring, particularly in FPV flight and sump pump applications.
Pros:
- High current detection range of 0.5A to 35A for switching value output and 25A for AC applications, providing versatility for various uses.
- Analog and digital output options allow for compatibility with different microcontroller setups, enhancing usability.
- Positive user reviews highlight its effectiveness, especially in practical applications like sump pump activity monitoring.
Cons:
- Challenges with digital signal calibration compared to analog inputs may require additional adjustments for accurate readings.
- Extensive averaging may be needed for reliable signal detection, potentially complicating setup.
- Limited to DC 5V operation, which may restrict use in systems operating at different voltages.
Current Transmitter FCS2151-SD-420E AC Current Converter
Current Transmitter, FCS2151-SD-420E Current Transducer Transmitter Transformer Sensor AC Current...
- Mutual inductance current monitoring, high current detection accuracy, stable performance, safe isolation of input and output.Magnetic hysteresis less than 1%, can be...
- The measured current AC: 0-100A / 150A / 200A can be selected.Output signal DC: 0-5V / 0-10V /4-20mA three forms are available.
- Installation and using are easy and convenient, there is no need to connect the dc series into the circuit during measurement.Through-heart structure design, isolation...
Current Transmitter FCS2151-SD-420E AC Current Converter serves as an exceptional choice for professionals engaging in advanced FPV flight monitoring due to its unparalleled measurement accuracy and robust performance under diverse conditions. Its measurement range spans from 0 to 200A, with selectable options of 0-100A, 150A, or 200A, accommodating various project specifications. Particularly, the device exhibits high current detection accuracy, combined with magnetic hysteresis below 1%, ensuring stable operations even within environments subjected to strong magnetic fields. With an output signal format of DC 0-5V, 0-10V, or 4-20mA, it facilitates seamless integration across applications requiring precise current and voltage conversions.
Best For: Professionals in need of precise AC current monitoring and detection in demanding environments.
Pros:
- High accuracy in current detection with low magnetic hysteresis.
- Versatile measurement range with selectable options for various applications.
- Strong overload ability and robust performance, ideal for high-stress conditions.
Cons:
- May require calibration for optimal accuracy in specific conditions.
- Limited to AC current monitoring; not suitable for DC applications.
- Installation may necessitate electrical expertise for proper integration.
5pcs ACS712 30A Range Current Sensor Module
UMLIFE 5pcs ACS712 30A Range Current Sensor Module Detector ACS712ELC 5A 20A 30A Amps Amperage (30A)
- Pin 5V power supply, on-board power indicator;
- No test current , the output voltage is VCC / 2;
- The module can measure range 5 / 20 /30 amps, corresponding to the analog output 100mV / A;
Designed specifically for applications requiring precise current measurement, the ACS712 30A Range Current Sensor Module delivers exceptional accuracy and responsiveness, making it an ideal choice for hobbyists and professionals engaged in FPV flight monitoring. This module, operating at a power supply of 5V, provides an analog output of 100mV per Amp, facilitating detailed and reliable current analysis. It accommodates measurement ranges of 5A, 20A, and 30A, suitable for various applications, including motor control and overcurrent fault protection. Importantly, its economical design features an on-board power indicator, ensuring easy integration into industrial or commercial systems seamlessly.
Best For: Hobbyists and professionals looking for an economical solution for precise current measurement in various applications like motor control and FPV flight monitoring.
Pros:
- Economical and accurate sensing solution with a variety of current ranges (5A, 20A, 30A).
- Provides a clear analog output of 100mV per Amp, allowing for detailed current analysis.
- On-board power indicator for easy integration and monitoring.
Cons:
- Requires a stable 5V power supply for optimal operation.
- Analog output may require additional circuitry for precise reading and interpretation.
- Limited to current sensing and does not provide digital output options.
HiLetgo 2pcs 5A AC Current Sensor Relay Module
HiLetgo 2pcs 5A AC Current Sensor Current Detection Sensor Relay 12V AC Current Relay Module AC...
- 5A AC Current Sensor Current Detection Sensor
- AC Current Relay Switch, 5V 12V 24V Optional
- Current detection resolution can change the parameter of resistance parameters
For professionals in the domain of FPV (First Person View) applications seeking precise monitoring of electrical currents, the HiLetgo 2pcs 5A AC Current Sensor Relay Module stands out as a critical component for effective system performance. This module operates within a range of 0.3A to 5A, leveraging a current transformer for AC signal collection, thereby ensuring accuracy in current detection. Users can adjust the over-current protection setting via an integrated potentiometer, which facilitates fine-tuning for specific operational needs. With a working voltage compatible with 5V, 12V, and 24V systems, it provides remarkable versatility while maintaining high reliability under various environmental conditions.
Best For: Professionals in FPV applications requiring accurate electrical current monitoring and control.
Pros:
- Adjustable sensitivity allows for precise calibration of over-current protection to meet specific requirements.
- Versatile working voltage options (5V, 12V, 24V) ensure compatibility with various systems.
- Reliable performance in different environmental conditions with a humidity tolerance of up to 95% RH.
Cons:
- Minor delay (2-3 seconds) in relay deactivation after the current decreases, which may affect time-sensitive applications.
- Limited current range (0.3A to 5A) may not meet the needs of higher power applications.
- Requires manual adjustment for sensitivity settings, which may be less convenient for some users.
Matek 150A Hall Effect Current Sensor for FPV Racing Drone
Matek 150A Hall Effect Current Sensor for Carbon Fiber FPV Racing Drone Quad Quadcopter Frame
- No voltage drop and heat on current sensor components
- Offset and Sensitivity are calibrated in factory
- Continuous current rating: 0~150A DC
The Matek 150A Hall Effect Current Sensor represents a sophisticated solution for discerning FPV racing drone enthusiasts who demand precise flight monitoring and enhanced performance metrics. With a continuous current rating of 0 to 150A DC and a voltage range of 0 to 69V, this sensor caters to high-performance applications such as carbon fiber quadcopters. Particularly, it features negligible voltage drop and minimal heat generation, ensuring maximum efficiency. Factory-calibrated sensitivity enhances accuracy, with INAV and BF scales of 2100 and 210, respectively. Power supply requirements are conveniently set at 5V, supporting 4 to 13V input at 17mA, making installation seamless.
Best For: Enthusiasts of high-performance FPV racing drones seeking precise monitoring of flight metrics and reliable performance.
Pros:
- Supports high currents up to 150A DC, making it ideal for demanding racing applications.
- Factory calibrated for accuracy, ensuring reliable performance across various flight conditions.
- Minimal heat generation and voltage drop enhance overall efficiency and battery life.
Cons:
- Requires a power supply of 5V, which may limit compatibility with some setups.
- Installation may require additional components or adjustments for optimal performance.
- Scale settings for various flight controllers could be confusing for novice users.
HiLetgo ZMCT103C AC Current Sensor Module (3pcs)
HiLetgo 3pcs ZMCT103C 5A AC Current Sensor Current Transformer Module Single Phase Active Analog...
- ZMCT103C 5A AC Current Sensor Current Transformer Module
- 5A can be measured within an alternating current, the analog output corresponding to 5A/5mA
- On-board micro-precision current transformer and sampling resistor
Catering specifically to hobbyists and professionals engaged in FPV (First Person View) drone operations, the HiLetgo ZMCT103C AC Current Sensor Module offers unparalleled precision in current measurement, capable of detecting up to 5A of alternating current. This module features an integrated on-board micro-precision current transformer alongside a carefully calibrated sampling resistor, facilitating high fidelity in output accuracy. The sensor outputs a single-phase active analog signal, produced via a built-in operational amplifier, ensuring real-time monitoring of current fluctuations. Each package includes three units, thereby enhancing your operational capability while providing you with sufficient redundancy for rigorous testing and application.
Best For: Hobbyists and professionals in FPV drone operations seeking accurate current measurement solutions.
Pros:
- High precision current measurement up to 5A with an analog output.
- Integrated operational amplifier for real-time current monitoring.
- Package includes three sensors, providing redundancy for testing and applications.
Cons:
- Limited to measuring alternating current only; not suitable for DC applications.
- Requires electronic knowledge for proper integration into projects.
- May be sensitive to environmental conditions, affecting output accuracy.
AM32 70A BLHeli_32 Brushless ESC for RC Airplane
Sale
AM32 70A BLHeli_32 32Bit Single Brushless ESC 3-6S Current Meter Sensor for RC Airplane FPV DIY RC...
- ◆ With 32bit ARM Cortex MCU STM32F051 48MHZ micro processor, throttle 2048 resolution ratio,strong anti-interference capacity.
- ◆ Built-in temperature sensor will pass the telemetry port to transfer and overlay to the OSD of FC,It can be programmed setting for temperature protection.
- ◆Support Blheli_32 firmware,can use the signal wire to upgrade the firmware or change the configuration on line.
Deploying advanced telemetry capabilities, the AM32 70A BLHeli_32 Brushless ESC is an exemplary choice for RC enthusiasts seeking enhanced flight monitoring and performance optimization. This device utilizes a 32-bit ARM Cortex MCU STM32F051, enabling a throttle resolution of 2048 and supporting PWM frequencies up to 500Hz. Its integrated current meter provides real-time current feedback, essential for evaluating power consumption during flights. In addition, its compatibility with Blheli_32 firmware allows customization via USB, facilitating fine-tuning across various applications such as multi-axis configurations and FPV setups. The built-in temperature sensor enhances telemetry functionality, providing critical data for informed operational decisions.
Best For: RC enthusiasts and hobbyists looking for a reliable and customizable ESC for enhanced flight performance and telemetry monitoring.
Pros:
- High performance: Supports multiple modes (PWM, oneshot, Multishot, Dshot) for versatile control options.
- Customizable settings: Allows for easy firmware upgrades and extensive programming via USB linker to suit various applications.
- Real-time monitoring: Integrated current meter and built-in temperature sensor provide essential telemetry data during operation.
Cons:
- Complexity for beginners: May be challenging for novice users to configure due to advanced settings and features.
- Limited compatibility: While versatile, it may not be compatible with every motor type out there, limiting options for some users.
- Requires additional equipment: The USB linker for programming may need to be purchased separately, adding to overall costs.
NOYITO ACS758LCB-050B-PFF-T Linear Current Sensor Hall Current Module
NOYITO ACS758LCB-050B-PFF-T Linear Current Sensor Hall Current Module
- This product is a current detection module, mainly using the ACS758-LCB current sensor. The ACS758 consists of a precision, low-offset linear Hall sensor circuit with a...
- Device accuracy is optimized by placing the magnetic signal close to the Hall sensor. The accurate, proportional output voltage is provided by a stable chopper-type...
- The internal resistance of this conduction path is typically 100 μΩ with low power loss. The thickness of the copper wire allows the device to operate under high...
NOYITO’s ACS758LCB-050B-PFF-T Linear Current Sensor Hall Current Module stands out as an exemplary choice for FPV (First-Person View) drone enthusiasts seeking precise current monitoring capabilities. This module leverages the advanced ACS758-LCB sensor which provides a detection range of ±50 A, ensuring adaptability across various applications. Integrated with a low-offset, chopper-type BiCMOS Hall IC, the sensor achieves optimized accuracy by aligning the magnetic signal closely with the Hall sensor. Furthermore, the electrically isolated conduction path enhances safety by preventing interference, while dual output configurations facilitate seamless integration with microcontroller A/D channels, enhancing functional versatility.
Best For: FPV drone enthusiasts and hobbyists looking for precise current monitoring solutions.
Pros:
- Optimized accuracy with advanced Hall sensor technology for reliable performance.
- Electrically isolated conduction path enhances safety and reduces interference.
- Dual output configurations allow for flexible integration with microcontrollers.
Cons:
- Limited to a detection range of ±50 A, which may not suit all high-current applications.
- Requires additional components (such as an op-amp) for impedance matching, potentially increasing complexity.
- May need careful calibration to ensure maximum accuracy in specific setups.
FrSky FAS100 ADV Smart Port and FBUS 100A Capable Current Sensor
FrSky FAS100 ADV Smart Port and FBUS 100A Capable Current Sensor
- Dimension: 65*23*18mm (L*W*H) Weight: 30g Measurement Range: 0-100A Current Consumption: 16mA@5V Maximum Safe Current: 100A Maximum Battery Voltage: 14S Compatible...
- FrSky ADVANCE (ADV) series has comprehensive sensor types and enhanced the performance and capability of the original sensor line, all ADV sensors fully support FBUS...
- With the FBUS protocol, the ADV sensors can be seamlessly paired with the FBUS capable receiver and further simplifying the builds setup.
The FrSky FAS100 ADV Smart Port and FBUS 100A Capable Current Sensor is an exemplary choice for enthusiasts seeking precision and reliability in their FPV flight monitoring systems, particularly due to its robust measurement capabilities which include a maximum current measurement of 100A and compatibility with batteries up to 14S.
With dimensions of 65*23*18mm and a weight of 30g, its compact design, combined with a current consumption of 16mA at 5V, promotes efficient performance. The sensor seamlessly integrates with receivers supporting the FrSky Smart Port and FBUS protocols, and its installation between the battery and ESC guarantees accurate current and voltage readings.
Best For: FPV enthusiasts and pilots seeking high-precision current and voltage monitoring in their drone setups.
Pros:
- High measurement range: Capable of measuring up to 100A, suitable for high-performance setups.
- Compact design: Lightweight and compact dimensions, making it easy to integrate into various builds.
- FBUS compatibility: Simplifies setup and enhances user experience with seamless integration into supported systems.
Cons:
- Limited to compatibility: Requires receivers that support FrSky Smart Port & FBUS functions, limiting options for some users.
- Current consumption: While low, it still consumes 16mA at 5V, which may be a consideration for battery-sensitive builds.
- Maximum voltage limitation: Only supports batteries up to 14S, which may not suffice for more advanced setups requiring higher voltages.
2pcs ACS712 Hall Effect Current Sensor Module and Voltage Sensor Module for Arduino
WayinTop ACS712 Hall Effect Current Sensor 30A + 2 Voltage Sensor DC0-25V for Arduino
- 【Perfect Combination】Using this product can measure both voltage and current, very suitable for DIY electronic design projects.
- 【Current Sensor Module】Chip: ACS712ELC-30A; Pin 5V power supply, on-board power indicator; The module can measure positive and negative current of 30 amperes...
- 【Voltage Sensor Module】Voltage input range: DC0-25V; Voltage detection range: DC0.02445V-25V; Voltage Analog Resolution: 0.00489V; DC input connector: Terminal...
When precision in current and voltage measurement is paramount for your FPV flight projects, the 2pcs ACS712 Hall Effect Current Sensor Module alongside the Voltage Sensor Module for Arduino emerges as an exceptional choice for both hobbyists and professionals. This set includes two ACS712 modules, each capable of measuring up to 30A, yielding an analog output of 66mV/A. Complementing this, the Voltage Sensor Module supports a voltage range of DC0-25V, enabling simultaneous measurements with high resolution at 0.00489V. Perfectly suited for DIY electronic design, these components are fundamental in enhancing your FPV systems’ monitoring capabilities considerably.
Best For: Hobbyists and professionals engaged in FPV flight projects seeking precise current and voltage measurements.
Pros:
- High Accuracy: Provides precise measurements with an analog output of 66mV/A for current and a resolution of 0.00489V for voltage.
- Wide Measurement Range: Capable of measuring current up to 30A and voltage up to 25V, making it versatile for various applications.
- User-Friendly: Easy to integrate with Arduino systems, perfect for DIY electronic design projects.
Cons:
- Power Dependency: Requires a 5V power supply to operate, which may limit its usage in battery-powered applications.
- Limited Current Range: While it measures up to 30A, heavier loads may require a different sensor.
- Analog Output: The analog output may necessitate additional calibration or processing for accurate digital readings.
Factors to Consider When Choosing an Fpv Current Sensor

When selecting an FPV current sensor, it’s essential to evaluate several key factors that can greatly impact performance and reliability. You’ll want to take into account the current measurement range to guarantee it aligns with your specific application, while also evaluating voltage compatibility for best integration with your existing systems. Additionally, factors such as output signal types, size and weight, and overload protection features should not be overlooked, as they play an integral role in maintaining the efficiency and safety of your setup.
Current Measurement Range
In selecting an FPV current sensor, understanding the current measurement range is essential, as it fundamentally dictates both the maximum and minimum currents that the sensor can detect with precision, typically expressed in amperes (A). The prevalent measurement ranges of FPV current sensors, such as 0-30A, 0-50A, or even up to 200A, accommodate diverse power requirements in drone applications, ensuring compatibility. Sensors engineered with elevated ranges, exceeding 150A, are particularly critical for high-performance setups, mitigating saturation during peak current scenarios. Importantly, selecting a sensor with a range surpassing the anticipated maximum current draw of the drone components is paramount to ensuring operational reliability and protecting equipment integrity, while narrower ranges can enhance precision for detecting minor current fluctuations in sensitive applications.
Voltage Compatibility
Verifying voltage compatibility is vital for ideal performance in FPV current sensors, as mismatched voltage levels can lead to malfunctions or operational inefficiencies. When selecting a sensor, confirm that its voltage compatibility aligns with your system’s battery voltage range, as many sensors support maximum limits up to 69V. Moreover, certain models accommodate a variety of inputs, ranging from 4V to 14S configurations, enhancing versatility across different power setups. It is also important to evaluate the power supply requirements; some sensors operate on 5V, whereas others may accept broader ranges, such as 5V, 12V, or 24V. Additionally, verify the sensor’s output voltage level matches the connected components, typically either TTL or analog levels, facilitating proper functionality throughout the system.
Output Signal Types
Selecting the appropriate output signal type is critical for optimizing the performance and integration of FPV current sensors within your system architecture, as various options greatly impact data acquisition and processing. Current sensors primarily offer analog voltage signals or digital signals. Analog outputs, commonly featuring linear responses around 60mV/A, are contingent on measurement ranges, necessitating extensive averaging for reliable readings. Conversely, digital signals, such as TTL level outputs, facilitate straightforward interfacing with microcontroller ports, simplifying threshold detections. Additionally, sensor modules may provide varied output options, including 0-5V, 0-10V, or 4-20mA. Understanding how these outputs align with existing systems is pivotal to ensuring effective data integration and operational efficiency during flight monitoring applications.
Size and Weight
Compactness and minimal weight represent essential considerations when evaluating FPV current sensors, particularly in the context of racing drones and quadcopters where operational space and weight limits are tightly constrained. A sensor’s size should facilitate seamless integration within constrained environments, thereby mitigating interference with other electronic components. Moreover, lightweight sensors greatly enhance flight performance by reducing overall drone weight, which in turn boosts agility and maneuverability. However, it is imperative to select sensors that maintain robustness and accuracy in the face of high currents typical of FPV applications. The design’s impact on aerodynamic efficiency is equally important; bulky sensors may induce considerable drag, adversely affecting flight stability and overall performance, which can be a crucial element for competitive racing scenarios.
Overload Protection Features
When evaluating FPV current sensors, particularly for high-performance applications, integrating robust overload protection features is pivotal, as these functionalities greatly mitigate the risk of damage to sensitive electronic components. For instance, many current sensors utilize built-in relays or circuit breakers that activate when detected current levels exceed predetermined thresholds, safeguarding the system during periods of high load. Additionally, having adjustable sensing thresholds allows you to tailor the overload protection according to specific application demands, enhancing versatility. Some sensors also include visual indicators, such as LEDs, to signal detected overload conditions, thereby improving user awareness of the system’s operational status. Furthermore, effective designs incorporate isolation withstand voltages, further ensuring safety and minimizing electrical failure risks under overload circumstances.
Calibration and Precision
Accurate calibration is critical for obtaining precise current readings from FPV current sensors, as it guarantees that any inherent offsets or sensitivities are effectively adjusted in accordance with the sensor’s specifications. The precision of current sensors is often delineated by metrics such as internal conduction path resistance, which markedly influences the sensor’s accuracy and efficiency in discerning current levels. Additionally, lower magnetic hysteresis enhances the sensor’s responsiveness and stability, resulting in more reliable readings of fluctuating currents. It is imperative to select a sensor with an appropriate detection current range tailored to your specific application for effective monitoring. Regular calibration checks and adjustments are recommended to maintain measurement accuracy over time, particularly in environments subject to variable conditions or external influences.
Frequently Asked Questions
How Do I Calibrate My FPV Current Sensor?
To calibrate your FPV current sensor, first verify it’s properly connected to your flight controller and power supply. Next, power on your system, then access the configuration menu in your flight controller software. Find the current sensor settings, input the correct parameters according to the manufacturer specifications, and conduct a calibration process by measuring the actual current drawn while comparing it to sensor readings to verify accuracy and reliability in real-time monitoring.
Can I Use Multiple Current Sensors Simultaneously?
Yes, you can use multiple current sensors simultaneously, enhancing signal accuracy and redundancy in monitoring. By implementing a system with several sensors, you mitigate the risk of failure, allowing for cross-verification of data, which can lead to improved operational efficiency. It’s crucial to guarantee compatibility among the sensors and manage the complexity of the data amalgamation. Analytical tools can assist in interpreting the consolidated information effectively, yielding actionable insights for best performance.
What Is the Typical Lifespan of an FPV Current Sensor?
The typical lifespan of an FPV current sensor usually ranges between 200 and 500 flight hours, contingent upon specific usage conditions and maintenance protocols. Factors influencing longevity include operational temperature, humidity exposure, and the frequency of electrical stress events. Consequently, regular calibration and preventative maintenance can mitigate degradation, thereby enhancing performance efficacy and reliability. Users must monitor sensor integrity consistently to confirm peak functionality throughout the sensor’s operational lifetime.
Are There Any Compatibility Issues With Different Drone Models?
When maneuvering through the complexities of compatibility, you’ll find that not all FPV current sensors seamlessly integrate with every drone model. Different manufacturers often employ unique voltage specifications, pin configurations, and signal protocols which can lead to operational discrepancies. Consequently, it’s vital you consult the technical documentation of both the drone and the sensor to avoid potential functionality issues and guarantee a reliable performance, thereby enhancing your overall flight experience and data accuracy.
How Does Temperature Affect the Accuracy of Current Sensors?
Temperature considerably affects the accuracy of current sensors, as fluctuations in thermal conditions can alter electrical resistance and sensor calibration. When operating outside ideal temperature ranges, you may notice deviations in readings, which could lead to inaccurate assessments of power consumption. For instance, a rise in temperature often increases resistance, causing sensor output to skew, thereby necessitating rigorous testing under varied conditions to guarantee reliable performance and maintain data integrity during flight operations.




